The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal housed in the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Pharmaceutics and Pharmacognosy, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. It is dedicated to all aspects of Pharmaceutical Sciences research and is published in English.
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Pharmaceutics and Pharmacognosy, University Of Nairobi
Review of Catha edulis in Kenya: Varieties, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology
Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. (Celestaracea family), commonly referred to as “khat’’, is a plant native to East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The plant is consumed for its stimulant effects and has thus gained great commercial importance both locally and internationally. In Kenya, there are two main varieties of Catha edulis; miraa and muguka. Although muguka is relatively cheaper than miraa, it is the most potent variety. Consumption of Catha edulis is associated with several detrimental health effects. Although the consumption of khat is Kenya is not prohibited, the active constituent, cathinone, is a controlled drug due to potential of abuse and addiction. The debate around controlling the sale of miraa and muguka in Kenya continues with the recent ban on supply of muguka in Mombasa and Kilifi counties in 2024 which sparked mixed reactions from various stakeholders. This review focuses on varieties, phytochemical composition and pharmacological effects of Catha edulis in Kenya.
Copyright (c) 2026 The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Drug Therapy Problems and Associated Factors in Management of Wilms’ Tumor Among Pediatric Patients in Kenyatta National Hospital
Drug therapy problems are common during the management of pediatric cases of Wilms’ tumor. They can lead to events requiring further medical attention thus complicating the therapy process and increasing the cost of treatment. The objective of this study was to determine drug therapy problems and the associated factors among pediatric Wilms’ tumor patients at Kenyatta National Hospital. A cross-sectional study recruiting pediatric patients (0 - 15 years) and their guardians was implemented. Data collection was done using a questionnaire and data abstraction tools. Chi square test and logistic regression in STATA version 15, were applied to identify possible associations between drug therapy problems and sociodemographic and clinical factors. Significance was set at ≤ 0.05. Between February and August 2023, 66 children were enrolled, mostly female (53%) with a median age of 4 (IQR 2-6) years. The most common drugs used were vincristine and cyclophosphamide/ doxorubicin combination. Drug therapy problems found were the need for additional therapy, adverse drug reactions and unnecessary drug therapy. Stage I of Wilms’ tumor was associated with unnecessary drug therapy (cOR 18, 95% CI 2.71 – 119.79, p = 0.003). Need for additional therapy, adverse drug reactions and unnecessary drug use were the drug therapy problems identified. Continuous review and education of patients during therapy would be beneficial to reduce occurrence of drug therapy problems.
Clinical Effectiveness of Dolutegravir-based Antiretroviral Therapy and its Determinants in Persons Living with HIV at a Kenyan Referral Hospital
Dolutegravir is widely used for HIV treatment as a first line drug. Though proven to be efficacious in other settings, its clinical effectiveness in resource-constrained settings is not yet confirmed. To determine the clinical effectiveness of dolutegravir regimens and associated factors in adults living with HIV at the Kenyatta National Hospital, a cross-sectional study was conducted at the HIV clinic using data abstracted from randomly sampled patient files. Descriptive and regression analysis were done using STATA version-13 at an α of < 0.05. Most of the 154 participants enrolled were females (95, 61.7%). The mean age was 45.2 (SD + 10.6) years. Viral load suppression was 92.6% and 95.5% at 6 and 12 months respectively. The TDF/3TC/DTG regimen (aOR = 21.607, 95% CI 1.118, 417.591) gave better odds of viral suppression at six months. Prevalence of opportunistic infections significantly decreased after dolutegravir initiation with bacterial pneumonia (6, 3.9%) being most common. Being treatment-experienced (aOR = 0.066, 95% CI 0.005, 0.886) resulted in lower odds of opportunistic infections after dolutegravir initiation. Adverse drug reactions to dolutegravir were infrequent though headache (11, 7.1%), weight-gain (3, 1.9%), and insomnia (2, 1.3%) were reported. Males (aOR = 0.222, 95% CI 0.061, 0.814) had lower odds of having adverse drug reactions. Dolutegravir-based regimens are clinically effective and well-tolerated with minimal adverse drug reactions.
Clinical effectiveness, dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy, persons living with HIV, Kenyatta National Hospital
Design and evaluation of cream-based formulations containing two organic materials for adsorbent, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties
Activated charcoal and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) powders, commonly used as medicines or spices, are considered valuable anti-aging agents. The aim of the study is to formulate activated charcoal and turmeric powders into Aqueous cream BP and assess for adsorbent, antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory properties. Activated charcoal and turmeric were characterized and twenty creams prepared with each powder alone and combined, were evaluated for organoleptic properties, viscosity, spreadability, antioxidant activity, stability and antimicrobial properties. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using carrageenan-induced acute inflammatory model. Data was analyzed using ANOVA at α0.05. Creams containing 6%w/w activated charcoal and turmeric powders 3:1 gave comparable (p = 0.001) antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties with the marketed sample and promising antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi. No change in stability occurred throughout the period of storage. Combination of turmeric and activated charcoal powders showed antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and adsorbent properties in cream formulations.
Activated charcoal powder, Adsorbent, Anti-inflammatory property, Anti-microbial, Antioxidant, Aqueous cream BP, Turmeric powder
Editorial: On the Legality of Natural Psychoactive Substances
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines psychoactive drugs as ‘substances that when taken in or administered into one's system, affect mental processes e.g. perception, consciousness, cognition or mood and emotions’. These drugs are disaggregated into permitted (alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana, pain medicines) and prohibited substances such as heroin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), cocaine, and amphetamines based on potency as well as disabling and addiction potential. The scope is quite wide and legality depends on socio-cultural, religious and economic dynamics within the jurisdiction of interest.
Editorial: On the Utility and Safety of Food Additives
A food additive is any substance that is deliberately added to foods to yield specific desirable effects such as preservation and organoleptic attributes. These conferred attributes are crucial in the marketability, acceptability, aesthetics, shelf life and value enhancement of foods. Food additives have been in use by mankind since antiquity. The Egyptians coloured food with saffron, while the Romans added alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) to whiten it. Interestingly, in the 19th century, bakers in England used alum to make bread whiter and bulkier. The Indians used spices (curries) in food preservation and traded in the same with other continents, thus resulting in the renowned inbound caravans from Europe. Salting was so effective and highly valued to the extent of being applied as ‘payment/wages’ among the Romans. Actually, the word ‘salary’ bears its etymology (Roman, ‘sal’) form this practice. The deliberate use of salt to preserve fish and meat, through dehydration was commonly used in diverse cultures. Traditional methods for food preservation include pickling with vinegar, salting, smoking, sugaring and alcoholization.
Copyright (c) 2025 The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Determinants of non-Adherence among Tuberculosis Patients on Treatment at Mbagathi County Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
Tuberculosis is one of the leading causes of mortality globally. Non-adherence leads to development of drug resistance, treatment failure and relapse, increased transmission of the bacilli and prolonged morbidity and mortality. A cross-sectional study with a sample of 138 participants, selected by simple random sampling, interviewed using a structured questionnaire was implemented. Telephone interviews on patients who were identified as lost to follow up was conducted. Data was populated in an Excel sheet and analyzed descriptively and inferentially via logistic regression using Stata version 13 software. A total of 137 tuberculosis patients was enrolled, two thirds of whom were males, with a median age of 32 (IQR 25,42). The prevalence of non-adherence was 7.30% (n=10). Medication complexity (aOR 14.67, 95% CI 2.44-88.07, p =0.003) and forgetting to take medications (aOR 9.11, 95% CI 1.16-71.54, p =0.036) were the main determinants associated with nonadherence. Attention should be devoted to these factors by finding means to help patients remember to take their medications and adopting fixed dose combinations and pill organizers to reduce medication complexity.
High Potassium Bromate Levels in Bread Brands marketed in Mwanza and Kagera regions of Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Study
Bread production often involves the addition of potassium bromate to enhance product quality. The study analyzed potassium bromate levels in bread brands from Mwanza and Kagera regions, Tanzania. This analysis was conducted due to the carcinogenic risks associated with potassium bromate when it exceeds the US-FDA's permissible concentration of 0.02 mg/kg. Twenty-one bread samples were randomly collected from the study areas and analyzed for potassium bromate content using David Pearson’s qualitative and quantitative methods at the Tanzania Bureau of Standards laboratories. The results obtained showed that all samples contained potassium bromate, with concentrations ranging from 1.02 - 4.85 μg/g, which is significantly above the permissible limit. Consequently, all brands tested are unsafe for human consumption due to excessive bromate levels. This indicates a significant public health risk and underscores the need for stricter regulatory enforcement to ensure adherence to food safety standards.
Potassium bromate, bread production, spectrophotometry, carcinogen
Isolation and Antioxidant Activity of Harmalol from Grewia villosa Willd. Stem and Root Bark
Grewia villosa Willd. is a deciduous shrub found in arid parts of Kenya and used as both food and medicine. The study aimed to isolate compounds present in Grewia villosa stem and root bark extract and assess their antioxidant activity. Grewia villosa stem and root bark were collected from Loitokitok, Kajiado County, Kenya. They were dried in the shade, pulverized to fine powder, and extracted in methanol/dichloromethane 1:1 mixture for 72 h. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporation. The crude extract was subjected to column chromatography over silica gel to obtain one pure compound. Analysis by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy identified the isolated pure compound as 1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-β-carbolin-7-ol (harmalol). Antioxidant activity was performed using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) standard protocol. Harmalol displayed significant antioxidant activity (115.22 µg/ml) comparable to that of the methanol extract. This compound was previously isolated from the root of G. villosa but was not fully characterized spectroscopically. This study is the first report of NMR characterization of harmalol.
Grewia villosa, isolation, harmalol, antioxidant
Quality Evaluation of Oxytetracycline Injection and Water Soluble Powder Veterinary Products Marketed in Nairobi City, Kenya
The antibiotic oxytetracycline is extensively applied in veterinary medicine in diverse formulations including injectable solution, water soluble powder and wound sprays. The drug is liable to degradation during processing and shelf life, which may compromise its quality attributes. A survey on the quality of oxytetracycline injection and water soluble powder products available in agroveterinary (agrovet) and pharmacy stores in Nairobi city, Kenya was carried out. Thirteen injectable and 11 water soluble powder samples were subjected to British Pharmacopoeia and United States Pharmacopeia quality specifications. Whereas all the injections complied with assay specifications, only three complied with colour of solution and none complied with pH specification. Furthermore, all water soluble powder samples failed the pH test, while two did not comply with assay specifications. The results obtained demonstrate the existence of substandard oxytetracycline products in the study area. Proper adherence to good manufacturing and distribution practices as well as post market surveillance studies are required to ensure optimal quality of veterinary drugs in the market.
Quality control, veterinary antibiotic, assay, pH, substandard and falsified medicine, degradation
Antibiotic Prescribing Patterns among Patients Suffering from COVID-19 at a Tertiary Teaching and Referral Facility in Kenya: Findings and Implications
The indiscriminate use of antibiotics during the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic may fuel antimicrobial resistance. This study aimed to determine the antibiotic prescribing patterns among COVID-19 patients in a tertiary healthcare facility in Kenya. A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted with data extracted from 138 patient medical records. Data was collected on severity of COVID-19 disease, laboratory tests, comorbidities, antibiotic use, and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 25 at p≤0.05. Antibiotic prescribing was at 67.4% with azithromycin (52.9%) and amoxicillin-clavulanate (47.1%) being the most common. Most patients (48.6%) received two antibiotics concomitantly, principally with azithromycin and co-amoxiclav (31.2%). Severity of COVID-19 (p<0.0001), presence of diabetes mellitus (p=0.018) and elevated procalcitonin (p=0.008) were significantly associated with antibiotic use. Clinicians used antibiotics based on the severity of COVID-19 and presence of comorbidity, which should be discouraged. Further research is needed to establish the long-term effects of antibiotic use in COVID-19 patients.
COVID-19, severity, comorbidities, antibiotics prescribing patterns
Comparative Analysis of Pharmaceutical Product Recall Guidelines followed by East African Regulatory Authorities
Pharmaceutical product recalls are carried out in response to defective products or adverse events occasioned by use of a product. Recalls are necessary to safeguard the health of the consumer, hence they need to be timely and effective. The objective of this study was to compare pharmaceutical product recall procedures and requirements followed by the Pharmacy and Poisons Board (PPB) of Kenya with those followed by the National Drug Authority (NDA) of Uganda and the Tanzania Medicines and Medical Devices Authority (TMDA). This cross-sectional study reviewed and thematically analyzed guidelines for product recall accessed from the websites of the three regulatory bodies. There were similarities in three out of twelve parameters (initial communication and final progress report contents as well as depth of recall) for all three regulators. The PPB and NDA had similar guidelines for two parameters while TMDA and PPB had similar requirements for four parameters. Both the NDA and TMDA lacked specifications for six parameters. Overall, the product recall procedures followed by the PPB, TMDA and NDA were found to be divergent. Adoption of harmonized guidelines will streamline product recall procedures within the East African region which share a political and economic ecosystem.
Drug products safety; recall procedures; Pharmacy and Poisons Board; Tanzania Medicines and Medical Devices Authority; Ugandan National Drug Authority
Drug Therapy Problems and Associated Factors in Patients on Anticoagulant Therapy at Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya
Achieving the goals of therapy with anticoagulants can be complicated by drug therapy problems (DTPs). The objective of the study was to identify and characterize DTPs among adult patients on anticoagulant therapy at the Kenyatta National Hospital medical wards in the between May and August 2023. For this purpose, subjects were interviewed and data extracted from their medical records. The data was analysed to give the prevalence of the DTPs in the study population and the associated factors. The enrolment phase garnered 125 participants into the study, 37.6% of whom had DTPs. The main DTPs encountered were drug-drug interactions and treatment safety problems in 23 (18.4%) and 20 (16%) participants, respectively. Associations between either the sociodemographic or clinical factors with the DTPs were not identified. The study demonstrated that Drug therapy problems are common in patients using anticoagulants. In conclusion, pharmacists should be vigilant to identify and intervene in case these problems arise.
Evaluation of the Quality and In Vitro Pharmaceutical Equivalence of Generic Metronidazole Tablet Brands Marketed in Kenya
Metronidazole is one of the most affordable, accessible and prescribed antimicrobials. It is included in the Essential Medicines List by the World Health Organization due to its pivotal role in public health. This study sought to evaluate the quality and pharmaceutical equivalence of generic metronidazole tablet brands marketed in Kenya. Nine metronidazole tablet brands were subjected to standard physicochemical tests for identity, uniformity of weight, friability, hardness, disintegration, assay, and dissolution as specified by the British Pharmacopoeia and the United States Pharmacopeia. The dissolution data of the eight generic brands were compared to that of the innovator brand using fit factors f1 and f2, and dissolution efficiency. All the nine metronidazole tablet brands complied with the tests for identity, friability, hardness, disintegration, and dissolution. One brand (11.1%) failed the test for uniformity of weight, while four brands (44.4%) did not meet the compendial limits for assay with values less than 95.0% label claim. The analyzed metronidazole tablet brands had similar drug release profiles and may therefore be considered pharmaceutical equivalents. Although most of the generic metronidazole tablet brands analyzed in this study are of the required quality, regular post-marketing surveillance is recommended to ensure that non-compliant pharmaceutical products are flagged and corrective actions instituted.
Metronidazole tablets, quality parameters, pharmaceutical equivalence
Editorial: Harmonization and Reliance Mechanisms in Medicines Regulation
Product recalls, alongside product withdrawals and safety alerts, are common phenomena in consumer goods manufacturing industry and regulation, and constitute part of corrective and preventive actions in quality management systems. Product recalls transcend several manufacturing sectors including automotive, telecommunications, pharmaceutical, furniture, food, clothing, cosmetic, and personal hygiene industries, among others.
Quality of Commercial Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers Marketed in Kampala, Uganda during the COVID-19 Pandemic
In the year 2020, coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) became a global public health emergency. The World Health Organization recommended wearing of masks, regular hand washing with soap or use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers to prevent human-to-human transmission of the disease. As a result, there was a rapid proliferation of hand sanitizers in the market, leading to concerns about the quality of these products. This study aimed to conduct a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of commercial alcohol-based hand sanitizers marketed in Kampala, Uganda. Commercial products (130) were sampled from five divisions of Kampala city and assessed for appearance, packaging, labelling and conformity with regulator’s mark of quality. Additionally, the pH of the samples was determined. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and flame ionization detectors were used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of the alcohol-based hand sanitizers, respectively. Only 15 samples (12%) met all the specifications for appearance, packaging, labelling, and regulation characteristics assessed. Alcohol was detected in 128 samples (98%). The permitted alcohols detected in the samples were ethanol (86%), isopropyl alcohol (4%) and ethanol/isopropyl alcohol admixture (3%). However, samples containing methanol, either alone (4%) or mixed with ethanol (1.5%) were encountered. Isopropyl alcohol was found as a denaturant in only one sample contrary to the label claims in seven samples. Twenty-two samples (17%) had a different alcohol from that declared on the label. Seventy-eight samples (60%) had alcohol content within the requisite range of 60-95% v/v while forty-two had less than 60% v/v alcohol, and one contained more than 95% v/v. Sixty-seven samples did not comply with the specifications for pH. The results obtained from the study underscore the need for market surveillance of these products.
COVID-19, alcohol-based hand sanitizer, Kampala, isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, methanol
Copyright (c) 2024 The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Quality Control Outcomes of Pharmaceuticals and Allied Products Analyzed in the Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies (MEDS) Laboratory: 2018-2020
Quality control data was compiled for samples analyzed in the Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies (MEDS) laboratory in the 2018-2020 period. During this interval, the laboratory received and processed 6,059 samples from Kenya and international sources. These samples comprised domestic (31.9%) and internationallymanufactured (67.0%) products while 1.1% were of undeclared origin. Analysis was performed using compendial and/or in-house specifications. The non-compliance rate was 8.0% consisting of 3.2 % local, 4.5% imports and 0.3% for samples of unknown origin. The top 20 drug classes with high failure rates were: environmental monitoring samples (100.0%), joint lubricants (50.0%), dialysis solutions (50.0%), microscopy stains (50.0%), herbal preparations (43.2%), nootropics (33.3%), solvents (33.3%), waters (32.0%), antiseptics/disinfectants (29.8%), medical devices (28.4%), hormones (23.7%), nutrient mixtures (20.9%), disease modifying antirheumatic drugs (20.0%), anti-incontinence drugs (16.7%), uterotonics (13.8%), vitamins (13.0%), anti-ulcer drugs (12.6%), vasopressor agents (12.5%), anthelmintics (12.2%) and hypolipidemics (10.8%). Full compliance was however, recorded with antiflatulants, digestive enzymes, antidiarrheals, prokinetics, anti-arrhythmics, anti-anginals, choleretics, antimycobacterials, anaesthetics, antimigraine drugs, bisphosphonates, antimyaesthenics thyroid/antithyroid drugs, erectile dysfunction drugs, ovulants, uricosurics, osmotic diuretics, vaginal lubricants, tocolytics, histaminics, lozenges, ear drops, detergents, radiopharmaceuticals, proteins, probiotics, acaricides, sterilization validation swabs and excipients. There was a significant increase in the overall non-compliance rate compared to the previous report for 2013-2017. These results add impetus towards the need for regulatory stringency to curb the occurrence of substandard and falsified products in the market.
MEDS, drug product, assay, dissolution, substandard and falsified medicine, specification
Quality Evaluation of Ciprofloxacin, Metronidazole, Albendazole Tablets and Amoxicillin Suspension, Marketed in Mwanza, Tanzania: A Cross Sectional Study
In Tanzania, essential medicines like amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and albendazole face potential quality challenges due to the risk of substandard and falsified drugs in the market. This study was carried out in Mwanza town, Tanzania to assess the quality of these drugs in order to address concerns about antimicrobial resistance and public safety. For this purpose, physical parameters, assay, and dissolution tests were conducted on samples of various brands according to the USP and BP monographs. All samples met USP standards for physical parameters and assay. But one brand of amoxicillin suspension failed assay test. Ciprofloxacin met dissolution criteria, but only one albendazole sample complied. About 47.6% of samples failed the quality tests performed. These results provide vital insights into pharmaceutical quality, safety and efficacy in the study area.
Quality Evaluation of Commercial Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers in Nairobi, Kenya: A Post COVID-19 Pandemic Survey
The global public health impact of COVID-19 necessitated multifaceted approaches such as use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) to control transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This study evaluated compliance with Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) specification of commercially available alcohol-based hand sanitizers purchased from selected retail outlets in the Nairobi metropolitan area. Out of the 122 samples analyzed, 63% met KEBS specifications based on visual inspection, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) identified methanol as a contaminant in 26% of samples. Quantification of the permitted alcohols, ethanol and isopropanol, using gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) revealed that 44.3% had an alcohol content within the specified range of 60 - 95% v/v, with 5.7% containing neither alcohol. Furthermore, only 10% of samples from local manufacturers met KEBS specifications. These results highlight the need for strict monitoring and regulation of alcohol-based hand sanitizers, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, the presence of methanol and variations in alcohol content underscore the importance of implementing comprehensive quality control measures to ensure the effectiveness and safety of these highly important public health tools.
COVID-19; hand sanitizers; quality assessment, KEBS specification, methanol contamination
Editorial: Poor Quality Alcohol Based Hand Sanitizers: The Pitfall in Infection Control
Ever since the serendipitous discovery of alcohol through fermentation c. 10000 BC, the substance has attracted utility and abuse in equal measure. The initial use of alcohol as beverage in social functions, later diversified to medicinal and spiritual applications. Alcohol discovery however, cannot be traced to a single source but diverse geographical sites, although its use for beverage purposes seems universal. Distillation of fermented liquors to produce spirits dates back to c. 2000 BC in China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia for medicinal, cosmetic and spiritual purposes. The invention of the alembic as a distillation apparatus has several claims towards Arabic, Jewish, Egyptian and European origins with accompanying nomenclature.
Editorial: Strengthening the Local Pharmaceutical Industry: A Vital Pillar of Universal Health Coverage
The desire for health and wellbeing has been a perpetual struggle for mankind since time immemorial. This doctrine derives from the recognition that effective healthcare requires proper infrastructure, adequate resources, quality medicines as well as trained and competent work force operating in a supportive sociopolitical framework. Health represents the epitome of basic human needs according to Maslow's matrix and is the proviso for robust economic, cultural, religious and political ecosystems. Over the past several millennia, socioeconomic disparities have defined healthcare with the nobles and gentry receiving extraordinary care while the masses lacked structured medical systems. History is replete with indicative metrics on infant mortality, impact of deadly epidemics/pandemics, life expectancy and human rights delineations that conspicuously demonstrate this distorted healthcare landscape. Royalty and nobility enjoyed physician, surgical, apothecary and nursing services beyond the reach of the commoners. For instance, the experimental use of chloroform (by inhalation) on Queen Victoria to allay labor pain in 1853, attained the royal seal of approval and established chloroform a la reine anesthetic.
Copyright (c) 2023 The East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Quality Assessment of Eucalyptus Oils Available in Nairobi County, Kenya
This study assessed eucalyptus oil quality in Nairobi County, Kenya, a product that garnered global attention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Twelve Eucalyptus oil product samples were obtained from local retailers encompassing community pharmacies, supermarkets and health shops. Gas chromatography was utilized for the identification and assay of the primary component, Eucalyptol. Additionally, an evaluation of product attributes, including optical rotation, refractive index, and relative density, was performed on the samples. The examination also extended to product labels and packaging to ensure conformity with established standards. Seven samples adhered to the stipulated labelling and packaging criteria, while two failed the refractive index test, and nine did not meet the relative density specifications. All samples met the optical rotation acceptance criteria. Only one sample conformed to the prescribed content specifications. These findings shed light on the quality of eucalyptus oils and have public health and regulatory implications, particularly given their increased use during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Eucalyptus oil, quality, gas chromatography, Eucalyptol
Formulation Design and in vitro Characterization of Gastroretentive Floating Acyclovir Tablets
Acyclovir is a thymidine kinase enzyme inhibitor used in the management of herpes zoster. Doses above 400mg exhibit poor bioavailability necessitating frequent administration to achieve the required therapeutic serum concentrations. This study aimed to design, formulate, and characterize floating tablets with enhanced bioavailability due to improved gastric retention time. The simplex lattice mixture design was employed to guide polymer proportions. Independent variables included polymers HPMC K100M, HPMC K4M, and Carbopol. The dependent variables were the floating lag time, total floating time and the cumulative drug release at 3, 6, and 8 hours, respectively. Formulation F2 exhibited the most desirable profile with a floating lag time and total floating time of 142 seconds and 14 hours, respectively and cumulative drug release at 3, 6, and 8 hours of 38.3%, 66.0% and 81.2 %, respectively. The findings indicate the feasibility of fabricating a commercially viable floating acyclovir tablet exhibiting extended gastric retention time and a controlled drug release profile.
Acyclovir, gastroretentive floating; bioavailability; simplex lattice mixture design; controlled drug release; dissolution models
A retrospective study of oral and dermatological formulations compounded via dosage form modifications at Kenyatta National Hospital from January 2020 to December 2021
The current study aimed to elucidate the extent of compounding involving dosage form modifications at Kenyatta National hospital from 2020-2021. A total of 2205 oral formulations, containing one out of thirty-eight active pharmaceutical ingredients, were compounded from commercially available tablets or capsules during the study period. The most frequently compounded oral formulations were furosemide (34.40%), spironolactone (25.72%), and sildenafil (9.40%) suspensions, which also accounted for the highest volumes produced. The study revealed that the total volume of oral formulations compounded was 161.4L, a marked rise from 38.4L compounded in the 2012-2013 period. Oral formulations were all prepared using 40% dextrose as diluent, packaged in amber colored plastic bottles and recommended for storage at 4-8°C. The majority of the formulations (71.29%) were assigned a beyond-use date of 14 days, in compliance to the United States Pharmacopeia (USP)recommendation. A total of 17 dermatological formulations, comprising either single-entity or dual combination of three active pharmaceutical ingredients, were prepared from commercially available powders or tablets during the two-year study period. The dermatologicals were reformulated as either ointments (with emulsifying ointment as diluent) or pastes (with white soft paraffin as base), packaged in white translucent plastic jars and recommended for storage at room temperature. Nifedipine paste accounted for the highest percentage by weight and frequency of the dermatological formulations. About 75.76% of the dermatological formulation were assigned a beyond-use date of 30 days, in compliance with the USP recommendation. The study revealed that extensive compounding, involving dosage form modifications, was carried out during the study period.
Compounding, beyond-use date, dosage form modification, oral, dermatological
Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers: Relevance of the Physicochemical Properties of Alcohol-Water Mixtures
The use of alcohol-water mixtures as antimicrobial agents for hand-hygiene grew significantly in the year 2020 due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Combining alcohols, such as ethanol or isopropanol, with water results in mixtures with a number of unusual characteristics with several solution properties deviating from ideal behavior. These characteristics are related to clustering or aggregation of the constituent molecules at the microscopic level. This paper reviews the physicochemical properties (polarity, density, viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension) of alcohol-water mixtures and their relevance to alcohol-based hand sanitizers. The role of the quasi-surfactant characteristics (amphiphilism, surface and interfacial tension lowering) of alcohols in eliciting their antimicrobial effects is discussed.
Alcohol-water mixtures, polarity, viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension, disinfection, hand sanitizers
Editorial: The Interplay of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Delivery Systems and Bio-Evaluation in Pharmaceutical Product Development
The development of new products for pharmacology-based therapies relies to a great extent on three key interrelated areas, namely: pharmaceutical analysis and characterization of the active principle; use of a suitable dosage form for administration and delivery of the active component; and bio-evaluation of the active prior to clinical trials. These areas are also the focus of much of research work in pharmaceutical sciences.
Microvascular Complications and the Associated Factors among Adult Diabetic Out-Patients in a County Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kenya
Data on the magnitude of microvascular complications and the associated factors is scarce in resource-limited settings. A descriptive cross-sectional was carried out among 100 adult diabetic outpatients at Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kenya to determine the prevalence, management and the factors associated with development of microvascular complications. Results showed the prevalence rates of neuropathy, nephropathy and retinopathy were 58.0%, 26.0% and 25.0%, respectively. Retinopathy (p=0.001), neuropathy (p=0.016) and nephropathy (p=0.048) were significantly associated with the duration of diabetes. Hypertension (OR=3.457; CI: 0.942-12.686), smoking (OR=3.143CI:1.190-8.308) and consumption of alcohol (OR=2.784, CI: 1.111-6.976), each independently increased the likelihood of development of nephropathy three-fold. Microvascular complications were mainly managed using renin inhibitors (67.0%), anticonvulsants (33.0%) and pyridoxine (30.0%). Results suggest that diabetic patients should be continually advised on lifestyle habits to retard the development of chronic complications. Future studies should correlate the management of complications and their clinical outcomes.
Microvascular Complications, Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetic outpatients, Management
Application of High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography and near Infrared Spectroscopy in the Validation of in-use Stability of Herbal Medicines used in the Management of Covid-19
Stability testing is a requirement in the registration process for all medicinal products, including herbal medicinal products (HMPs). This study was designed to investigate the stability of two herbal liquid preparations, Covidol® and Rona®, used to treat Covid-19 in Tanzania. The study aimed to predict the effect of standard environmental conditions on the in-use stability of liquid formulations of Covidol® and Rona® stored at ambient conditions for 28 days after opening. The chemical stability patterns of the two products were monitored using high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) methods. Physical parameters such as pH, appearance and odor were also monitored. Under ambient conditions, Covidol® remained stable throughout the study period while Rona® underwent degradation as indicated by changes in its HPTLC and NIRS fingerprint patterns. These methods can be applied for quality control and stability testing of Covidol® and Rona® herbal products.
Covidol®, Rona®, in-use stability, stability-indicating HPTLC, NIRS, quality control
Formulation of Gastroretentive Microballoons of Metoprolol Succinate Using Acetylated Cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) Starch as a Sustained Release Polymer
Gastroretentive microballoons of metoprolol succinate (an adrenergic beta receptor blocker) were formulated using acetylated starch from cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) in order to release the drug at a controlled rate and increase bioavailability. Acetylated cocoyam starch (DS 1.106 ± 0.054) was characterized and used in various combinations with Eudragit S100 to produce microballoons of metoprolol succinate at varying polymer:drug ratios. The microballoons were characterized for morphology, entrapment efficiency, in vitro buoyancy and dissolution time (t50). Metoprolol microballoons containing acetylated starch had higher entrapment efficiency and in vitro buoyancy ( >12 h) than those containing Eudragit S100 alone. The dissolution time (t50) increased with polymer: drug ratio with formulation of starch: Eudragit S100 1:3 showing sustained drug release (t50 = 185.50 min) at polymer:drug ratio 6:1 which was comparable to dissolution time of Eudragit S alone at a similar polymer: drug ratio. Acetylated cocoyam starch showed potential as a cheaper, alternative polymer in gastroretentive drug delivery systems for high entrapment, prolonged buoyancy and sustained drug release.
Acetylation, Cocoyam starch, Gastroretentive drug delivery systems, Metoprolol succinate, Microballoons
Drug delivery Resistance of Blood-Brain-Barrier: Cajanus cajan and Lycopersicon esculentum down-regulated Multi-drug Resistance1 Expression in Cerebrum of Rats
P-glycoprotein (multi-drug resistance 1 protein) is a brain endothelial cell protein which functions as a drug efflux transporter and strengthens the shielding effect of the blood brain barrier making drug delivery to the brain a challenging task. This study examined neuroprotective potential of two ethnomedicinal plants, Cajanus cajan and Lycopersicon esculentum, on P-glycoprotein expression in ethidium bromide-induced neurotoxicity. Ethidium bromide-induced toxicity was achieved via application of 0.5 ml of a solution of 0.5 g/100 ml ethidium bromide in ethanol to the scraped ventral skin of 23 groups (n = 5) of adult rats (day 1). Groups 1 and 2 were post-treated with normal saline and tamsulosin hydrochloride, respectively (days 1-28). Nine groups (CC3-11) were post-treated with Cajanus cajan (aqueous, butanolic and ethanolic extracts of seeds, stems and leaves) (days 1-28). Twelve groups (LE3-14) were post-treated with Lycopersicon esculentum (aqueous, butanolic, ethanolic and n-hexane extracts of roots, stems and leaves) (days 1-28). Concentrations of P-glycoprotein in homogenates of cerebral cortices were determined using ELISA following anaesthetization using diethyl ether. Data were analysed using ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc test at p ≤ 0.05. Post-treatments with Cajanus cajan and Lycopersicon esculentum extracts resulted in significant downregulations of MDR1 in CC3, CC4, CC6-11 and LE3-14 compared with group 1. Cajanus cajan and Lycopersicon esculentum possess neuroprotective and anti-drug resistance potential.
Ethidium bromide, neurotoxicity, Multi-drug resistance protein1, Cajanus cajan, Lycopersicon esculentum